Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Weak and uneven associations of home, neighborhood, and school environments with stress hormone output across multiple timescales

Molecular Psychiatry volume 26, pages 4823–4838 (2021)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

The progression of lifelong trajectories of socioeconomic inequalities in health and mortality begins in childhood. Dysregulation in cortisol, a stress hormone that is the primary output of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, has been hypothesized to be a mechanism for how early environmental adversity compromises health. However, despite the popularity of cortisol as a biomarker for stress and adversity, little is known about whether cortisol output differs in children being raised in socioeconomically disadvantaged environments. Here, we show that there are few differences between advantaged and disadvantaged children in their cortisol output. In 8–14-year-old children from the population-based Texas Twin Project, we measured cortisol output at three different timescales: (a) diurnal fluctuation in salivary cortisol (n = 400), (b) salivary cortisol reactivity and recovery after exposure to the Trier Social Stress Test (n = 444), and (c) cortisol concentration in hair (n = 1210). These measures converged on two moderately correlated, yet distinguishable, dimensions of HPA function. We tested differences in cortisol output across nine aspects of social disadvantage at the home (e.g., family socioeconomic status), school (e.g., average levels of academic achievement), and neighborhood (e.g., concentrated poverty). Children living in neighborhoods with higher concentrated poverty had higher diurnal cortisol output, as measured in saliva; otherwise, child cortisol output was unrelated to any other aspect of social disadvantage. Overall, we find limited support for alteration in HPA axis functioning as a general mechanism for the health consequences of socioeconomic inequality in childhood.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Our approach for measuring variation in cortisol and socioecological disadvantage.
Fig. 2: Patterns of within and between individual variability in diurnal and reactive cortisol trajectories calculated applying multilevel piecewise growth models.
Fig. 3: Correlations between variation in diurnal and reactive cortisol rhythm and hair cortisol.
Fig. 4: Association between second-order latent factors of cortisol, clustering variation common across latent growth parameters into chronic and diurnal cortisol levels, all paths are standardized, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.
Fig. 5: Correlations between multimodal cortisol output and the nine socioecological context indicators characterizing variation in the home, school, and neighborhood environments.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

While results, FIML summary data, analytic scripts, and generated outputs will be uploaded and instantly available for all researchers to use, our policy regarding the access of raw data files is separate. The data file related to this project contains particularly sensitive information, including each child’s geocoded neighborhood and school information and sensitive endocrinological data. To this end, researchers will be able to obtain the data file through managed access. Requests for managed access should be sent to EMT-D and KPH, joint principal investigators of the Texas Twin Project.

Code availability

Results, FIML summary data, analytic scripts, and generated outputs will be uploaded and instantly available for all researchers to use.

References

  1. Marmot M, Davey-Smith G, Stansfeld S, Patel C, North F, Head J, et al. Health inequalities among British civil servants: teh Whitehall II study. Lancet. 1991;337:1387–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Chetty R, Stepner M, Abraham S, Lin S, Scuderi B, Turner N, et al. The association between income and life expectancy in the United States, 2001-2014. JAMA. 2016;315:1750–66.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Case A, Deaton A. Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2015;112:1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Saez E. Striking it richer: the evolution of top incomes in the United States (updated with 2014 preliminary estimates). Univ Calif Berkley Work Pap. 2015;2015:120–8.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Lupien SJ, King S, Meaney MJ, McEwen BS. Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Dev Psychopathol. 2001;13:653–76.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Miller GE, Chen E. The biological residue of childhood poverty. Child Dev Perspect. 2013;7:67–73.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Stress-induced immune dysfunction: implications for health. Nat Rev Immunol. 2005;5:240–51.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Hertzman C, Boyce T. How Experience gets under the skin to create gradients in developmental health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2010;31:329–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Mcewen BS. Correction for McEwen, brain on stress: how the social environment gets under the skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013;110:2–1561.

    Google Scholar 

  10. McLaughlin KA, Lane RD, Bush NR. Introduction to the special issue of psychosomatic medicine: mechanisms linking early-life adversity to physical health. Psychosom Med. 2016;78:976–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Danese A. Commentary: biological embedding of childhood adversity: where do we go from here? A reflection on Koss and Gunnar (2018). J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip. 2018;59:347–9.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Meaney MJ. Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2001;24:1161–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Meaney MJ. Mother nurture and the social definition of neurodevelopment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2016;113:6094–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Bhatnagar S, Meaney MJ. Hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal function in chronic intermittently cold‐stressed neonatally handled and non handled rats. J Neuroendocrinol. 1995;7:97–108.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Liu D, Diorio J, Tannenbaum B, Caldji C, Francis D, Sharma S, et al. Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid responses to stress receptor (GR) expression in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response to stress. Science. 1997;277:1659–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Hellstrom IC, Dhir SK, Diorio JC, Meaney MJ. Maternal licking regulates hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor transcription through a thyroid hormone-serotonin-NGFI-A signalling cascade. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 2012;367:2495–510.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Staufenbiel SM, Pennix BWJH, Spijker AT, Elzinga M, van Rossum EFC. Hair cortisol, stress exposure, and mental health in humans: a systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2013;38:1220–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Kristenson M, Garvin P, Lundberg U. Psychosocial work stressors and salivary. In: The role of saliva cortisol measurement in health and disease. Danvers, MA: Bentham Science Publishers; 2012. p. 3–16.

  19. Stalder T, Steudte-Schmiedgen S, Alexander N, Klucken T, Vater A, Wichmann S, et al. Stress-related and basic determinants of hair cortisol in humans: a meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2017;77:261–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Van Der Vegt EJM, Van Der Ende J, Kirschbaum C, Verhulst FC, Tiemeier H. Early neglect and abuse predict diurnal cortisol patterns in adults. A study of international adoptees. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34:660–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Carpenter LL, Tyrka AR, Ross NS, Khoury L, Anderson GM, Price LH. Effect of childhood emotional abuse and age on cortisol responsivity in adulthood. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66:69–75.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR, Heim C. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10:434–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Bunea IM, Szentágotai-Tǎtar A, Miu AC. Early-life adversity and cortisol response to social stress: a meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry. 2017;7:1274.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Adam EK, Kumari M. Assessing salivary cortisol in large-scale, epidemiological research. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34:1423–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Cohen S, Schwartz JE, Epel E, Kirschbaum C, Sidney S, Seeman T. Socioeconomic status, race, and diurnal cortisol decline in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) Study. Psychosom Med. 2006;68:41–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kumari M, Badrick E, Chandola T, Adler NE, Epel E, Seeman T, et al. Measures of social position and cortisol secretion in an aging population: findings from the Whitehall II study. Psychosom Med. 2010;72:27–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Karlamangla AS, Friedman EM, Seeman TE, Stawksi RS, Almeida DM. Daytime trajectories of cortisol: demographic and socioeconomic differences-Findings from the national study of daily experiences. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2013;38:2585–97.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Dulin-Keita A, Casazza K, Fernandez JR, Goran MI, Gower B. Do neighbourhoods matter? Neighbourhood disorder and long-term trends in serum cortisol levels. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2012;66:24–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wagner SL, Cepeda I, Krieger D, Maggi S, D’Angiulli A, Weinberg J, et al. Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: the role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare. Child Neuropsychol. 2016;22:853–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Chemin M, de Laat J, Haushofer J. Negative rainfall shocks increase levels of the stress hormone cortisol among poor farmers in Kenya. SSRN. 2013. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2294171.

  31. Shapiro J, Haushofer J. The short-term impact of unconditional cash transfers to the poor: experimental evidence. Q J Econ. 2016;131:1973–2042.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Del Giudice M, Ellis B, Shirtcliff EA. The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011;35:1562–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Boyce WT, Ellis BJ. Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary—developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Dev Psychopathol. 2005;17:271–301.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Bernard K, Frost A, Bennett CB, Lindhiem O. Maltreatment and diurnal cortisol regulation: a meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2017;78:57–67.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Raffington L, Prindle J, Keresztes A, Binder J, Heim C, Shing YL. Blunted cortisol stress reactivity in low–income children relates to lower memory function. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;90:110–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Hayward MD, Gorman BK. The long arm of childhod: the influence of early-life social conditions on men’s mortality. Demography. 2004;41:87–107.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Gunnar M, Quevedo K. The neurobiology of stress and development. Annu Rev Psychol. 2007;58:145–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kirschbaum C, Pirke KM, Hellhammer DH. The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’—a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology. 1993;28:76–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Clow A, Hucklebridge F, Stalder T, Clow P, Thorn L. The cortisol awakening response: more than a measure of HPA axis function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010;35:97–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Elder GJ, Wetherell MA, Barclay NL, Ellis JG. The cortisol awakening response–applications and implications for sleep medicine. Sleep Med Rev. 2014;18:215–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Stavropoulos I, Pervanidou P, Gnardellis C, Loli N, Theodorou V, Mantzou A, et al. Epilepsy & behavior increased hair cortisol and antecedent somatic complaints in children with a fi rst epileptic seizure. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;68:146–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Noppe G, Van Rossum EFC, Vliegenthart J, Koper JW, Van Den Akker ELT. Elevated hair cortisol concentrations in children with adrenal insufficiency on hydrocortisone replacement therapy. Clin Endocrinol. 2014;81:820–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Föcker M, Stalder T, Kirschbaum C, Albrecht M, Adams F, De Zwaan M, et al. Hair cortisol concentrations in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa are lower compared to healthy and psychiatric controls. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2016;24:531–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Short SJ, Stalder T, Marceau K, Entringer S, Moog NK, Shirtcliff EA, et al. Correspondence between hair cortisol concentrations and 30-day integrated daily salivary and weekly urinary cortisol measures. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2016;71:12–8.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Stalder T, Kirschbaum C. Analysis of cortisol in hair—State of the art and future directions. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26:1019–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Tafet GE, Nemeroff CB. The links between stress and depression: psychoneuroendocrinological, genetic, and environmental interactions. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016;28:77–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Gray NA, Dhana A, Van Der Vyver L, Van Wyk J, Khumalo NP, Stein DJ. Determinants of hair cortisol concentration in children: a systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;87:204–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Koss KJ, Gunnar MR. Annual research review: early adversity, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis, and child psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip. 2018;59:327–46.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Lucas-Thompson RG, Henry KL, McKernan CJ. Is cortisol production in response to an acute stressor associated with diurnal cortisol production during adolescence? Dev Psychobiol. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21593.

  50. Xie Q, Gao W, Li J, Qiao T, Jin J, Deng H, et al. Correlation of cortisol in 1-cm hair segment with salivary cortisol in human: hair cortisol as an endogenous biomarker. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2011;49:2013–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Vanaelst B, Huybrechts I, Bammann K, Michels N, de Vriendt T, Vyncke K, et al. Intercorrelations between serum, salivary, and hair cortisol and child-reported estimates of stress in elementary school girls. Psychophysiology. 2012;49:1072–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. D’Anna-Hernandez KL, Ross RG, Natvig CL, Laudenslager ML. Hair cortisol levels as a retrospective marker of hypothalamic-pituitary axis activity throughout pregnancy: Comparison to salivary cortisol. Physiol Behav. 2011;104:348–53.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Engelhardt LE, Church JA, Harden KP, Tucker-Drob EM. Accounting for the shared environment in cognitive abilities and academic achievement with measured socioecological contexts. Dev Sci. 2019;22:e12699.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Sonuga-Barke EJS, Kennedy M, Kumsta R, Knights N, Golm D, Rutter M, et al. Child-to-adult neurodevelopmental and mental health trajectories after early life deprivation: the young adult follow-up of the longitudinal English and Romanian Adoptees study. Lancet. 2017;389:1539–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Signorell A, Aho K, Alfons A, Anderegg N, Aragon T, Arppe A, et al. DescTools: tools for descriptive statistics. 2019.

  56. OECD. In it together: why less inequality benefits all. Paris: OECD; 2015.

  57. Fekedulegn DB, Andrew ME, Burchfiel CM, Violanti JM, Hartley TA, Charles LE, et al. Area under the curve and other summary indicators of repeated waking cortisol measurements. Psychosom Med. 2007;69:651–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Pruessner JC, Kirschbaum C, Meinlschmid G, Hellhammer DH. Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2003;28:916–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Felt JM, Depaoli S, Tiemensma J. Latent growth curve models for biomarkers of the stress response. Front Neurosci. 2017;11:1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y. Controlling the False discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc. 1995;57:289–300.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Grotzinger AD, Briley DA, Engelhardt LE, Mann FD, Patterson MW, Tackett JL, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on pubertal hormones in human hair across development. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;90:76–84.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Gunnar MR, Wewerka S, Frenn K, Long JD, Griggs C. Developmental changes in hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: Normative changes and associations with puberty. Dev Psychopathol. 2009;21:69–85.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Hellhammer DH, Wüst S, Kudielka BM. Salivary cortisol as a biomarker in stress research. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34:163–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Malanchini M, Engelhardt LE, Grotzinger AD, Harden KP, Tucker-Drob EM. “Same but different”: associations between multiple aspects of self-regulation, cognition and academic abilities. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2019;117:1164–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Hajat A, Moore K, Phuong Do D, Stein Merkin S, Punjabi NM, Sáñchez BN, et al. Examining the cross-sectional and longitudinal association between diurnal cortisol and neighborhood characteristics: evidence from the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Heal Place. 2015;34:199–206.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Theall KP, Shirtcliff EA, Dismukes AR, Wallace M, Dury SS. Association between neighborhood violence and biological stress in children. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171:53–60.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Major JM, Doubeni CA, Freedman ND, Park Y, Lian M, Hollenbeck AR, et al. Neighborhood socioeconomic deprivation and mortality: NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e15538.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Hinson JP, Raven PW. Effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on adrenal function. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;20:111–20.

  69. Shirtcliff EA, Peres JC, Dismukes AR, Lee Y, Phan JM. Riding the physiological roller coaster: adaptive significance of cortisol stress reactivity to social contexts. J Pers Disord. 2014;28:40–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Bouma EMC, Riese H, Ormel J, Verhulst FC, Oldehinkel AJ. Adolescents’ cortisol responses to awakening and social stress; effects of gender, menstrual phase and oral contraceptives. the trails study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34:884–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Kidd T, Carvalho LA, Steptoe A. The relationship between cortisol responses to laboratory stress and cortisol profiles in daily life. Biol Psychol. 2014;99:34–40.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Ellis BJ, Boyce WT, Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van Ijzendoorn MH. Differential susceptibility to the environment: an evolutionary- neurodevelopmental theory. Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23:7–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Shirtcliff EA, Skinner ML, Obasi EM, Haggerty KP. Positive parenting predicts cortisol functioning six years later in young adults. Dev Sci. 2017;20.

  74. Freese J. The arrival of social science genomics. Contemp Sociol. 2018;47:524–36.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Dajani R, Hadfield K, van Uum S, Greff M, Panter-Brick C. Hair cortisol concentrations in war-affected adolescents: a prospective intervention trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2018;89:138–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Matthews KA, Gallo LC. Psychological perspectives on pathways linking socioeconomic status and physical health. Annu Rev Psychol. 2011;62:501–30.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Essex MJ, Shirtcliff EA, Burk LR, Ruttle PL, Klein MH, Slattery MJ, et al. Influence of early life stress on later hypothalamic—pituitary—adrenal axis functioning and its covariation with mental health symptoms: a study of the allostatic process from childhood into adolescence. Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23:1039–58.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Bor J, Cohen GH, Galea S. Population health in an era of rising income inequality: USA, 1980–2015. Lancet. 2017;389:1475–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Harden KP, Tucker-Drob EM, Tackett J. The Texas Twin Project. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2013;16:385–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Dettenborn L, Tietze A, Kirschbaum C, Stalder T. The assessment of cortisol in human hair: associations with sociodemographic variables and potential confounders. Stress. 2012;15:578–88.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Gao W, Stalder T, Foley P, Rauh M, Deng H, Kirschbaum C. Quantitative analysis of steroid hormones in human hair using a column-switching LC-APCI-MS/MS assay. J Chromatogr B Anal Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2013;928:1–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Stalder T, Steudte S, Miller R, Skoluda N, Dettenborn L, Kirschbaum C. Intraindividual stability of hair cortisol concentrations. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2012;37:602–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Grotzinger AD, Mann FD, Patterson MW, Tackett JL, Tucker-Drob EM, Harden KP. Hair and salivary testosterone, hair cortisol, and externalizing behaviors in adolescents. Psychol Sci. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617742981.

  84. Porter B, Leary KDO. Marital discord and childhood behavioral problems. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1980;8:287–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Muthén LK, Muthén BO. Mplus user’s guide. 8th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén; 2017.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge all participant members of the Texas Twin Project. KPH and EMT-D are faculty research associates of the Population Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin, which is supported by a grant, 5-R24-HD042849, from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. KPH and EMT-D are also supported by Jacobs Foundation Research Fellowships. This research was supported by NIH grant R01HD083613. MM is partly supported by the David Wechsler Early Career Award for Innovative Work in Cognition and by NIH grant R01HD083613 awarded to EMT-D and KPH.

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: K. Paige Harden, Elliot M. Tucker-Drob

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

    Margherita Malanchini

  2. Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Margherita Malanchini, Laura E. Engelhardt, Laurel A. Raffington, Aditi Sabhlok, Andrew D. Grotzinger, James W. Madole, Samantha M. Freis, Megan W. Patterson, K. Paige Harden & Elliot M. Tucker-Drob

  3. Population research Center, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Margherita Malanchini, Laurel A. Raffington, K. Paige Harden & Elliot M. Tucker-Drob

  4. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA

    Daniel A. Briley

Authors
  1. Margherita Malanchini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Laura E. Engelhardt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Laurel A. Raffington
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Aditi Sabhlok
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Andrew D. Grotzinger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Daniel A. Briley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. James W. Madole
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Samantha M. Freis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Megan W. Patterson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. K. Paige Harden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Elliot M. Tucker-Drob
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MM, KPH, and EMT-D designed the study; MM, LEE, KPH, and EMT-D contributed new reagents/analytic tools; MM, LEE, and EMT-D analyzed data; MM, LEE, LR, AS, ADG, DAB, JWM, SMF, MWP, KPH, and EMT-D performed the research; and MM, KPH, and EMT-D wrote the paper.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Margherita Malanchini or Elliot M. Tucker-Drob.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Malanchini, M., Engelhardt, L.E., Raffington, L.A. et al. Weak and uneven associations of home, neighborhood, and school environments with stress hormone output across multiple timescales. Mol Psychiatry 26, 4823–4838 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0747-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0747-z

Search

Advanced search

Quick links