Abstract
Chemical, physical and biological processes in hydrothermal plumes control the flux of elements from hydrothermal vents to the global oceans. The timescales of these processes range from less than a second, as the hydrothermal fluid mixes with seawater at the seafloor, to decades, as the plume disperses over thousands of kilometres. Integrating hydrothermal geochemistry throughout the lifetime of the plume reveals some well-constrained processes, along with many surprises. For instance, contrary to the idea that metals are removed from the hydrothermal plume via oxidation, a survey of recent datasets reveals that oxidation of iron and manganese does not consistently result in their removal from the plume, and that manganese may be lost from the water column more rapidly than iron. These observations suggest that our understanding of element transport in hydrothermal plumes is incomplete, partly due to the change in removal processes as the plume disperses from less than 1 km from the vent to more than 4,000 km. We suggest that characterizing the plume on the basis of regions that retain some reduced components versus those that are fully oxidized, in addition to buoyancy, will illuminate the nature of the dominant processes and allow a more complete understanding of the ultimate fate of hydrothermally derived metals.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
21 July 2020
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0625-y
References
German, C. R. & Seyfried, W. E. in Treatise on Geochemistry 2nd Edition – Volume 8: The Oceans and Marine Geochemistry (eds Mottl, M. J. & Elderfield, H.) 191–233 (Elsevier, 2014).
Tagliabue, A. et al. Hydrothermal contribution to the oceanic dissolved iron inventory. Nat. Geosci. 3, 252–256 (2010).
Yücel, M., Gartman, A., Chan, C. S. & Luther, G. W. Hydrothermal vents as a kinetically stable source of iron-sulphide-bearing nanoparticles to the ocean. Nat. Geosci. 4, 367–371 (2011).
Gartman, A., Findlay, A. J. & Luther, G. W. Nanoparticulate pyrite and other nanoparticles are a widespread component of hydrothermal vent black smoker emissions. Chem. Geol. 366, 32–41 (2014).
Findlay, A. J., Gartman, A., Shaw, T. J. & Luther, G. W. Trace metal concentration and partitioning in the first 1.5 m of hydrothermal vent plumes along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: TAG, Snakepit, and Rainbow. Chem. Geol. 412, 117–131 (2015).
Bennett, S. A. et al. Dissolved and particulate organic carbon in hydrothermal plumes from the East Pacific Rise, 9°50′N. Deep Sea Res. Pt I 58, 922–931 (2011).
Toner, B. M. et al. Preservation of iron(ii) by carbon-rich matrices in a hydrothermal plume. Nat. Geosci. 2, 197–201 (2009).
Sander, S. G. & Koschinsky, A. Metal flux from hydrothermal vents increased by organic complexation. Nat. Geosci. 4, 145–150 (2011).
Lough, A. J. M. et al. Soluble iron conservation and colloidal iron dynamics in a hydrothermal plume. Chem. Geol. 511, 225–237 (2019).
Li, M. et al. Microbial iron uptake as a mechanism for dispersing iron from deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Nat. Commun. 5, 3192 (2014).
Breier, J. A. et al. Sulfur, sulfides, oxides and organic matter aggregated in submarine hydrothermal plumes at 9°50′N East Pacific Rise. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 88, 216–236 (2012).
Hoffman, C. L. et al. Near-field iron and carbon chemistry of non-buoyant hydrothermal plume particles, Southern East Pacific Rise 15° S. Mar. Chem. 201, 183–197 (2018).
Fitzsimmons, J. N. et al. Iron persistence in a distal hydrothermal plume supported by dissolved-particulate exchange. Nat. Geosci. 10, 195–201 (2017).
Resing, J. A. et al. Basin-scale transport of hydrothermal dissolved metals across the South Pacific Ocean. Nature 523, 200–203 (2015).
German, C. R. & Von Damm, K. L. in Treatise on Geochemistry: The Oceans and Marine Geochemistry (eds Holland, H. D. & Turekian, K. K.) 181–222 (Elsevier, 2004).
Saito, M. A. et al. Slow-spreading submarine ridges in the South Atlantic as a significant oceanic iron source. Nat. Geosci. 6, 775–779 (2013).
Hrischeva, E. & Scott, S. D. Geochemistry and morphology of metalliferous sediments and oxyhydroxides from the Endeavour segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 71, 3476–3497 (2007).
Fitzsimmons, J. N., Boyle, E. A. & Jenkins, W. J. Distal transport of dissolved hydrothermal iron in the deep South Pacific Ocean. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 16654–16661 (2014).
Lee, J. M., Heller, M. I. & Lam, P. J. Size distribution of particulate trace elements in the U. S. GEOTRACES Eastern Pacific Zonal Transect (GP16). Mar. Chem. 201, 108–123 (2017).
Middag, R., de Baar, H. J. W., Laan, P. & Klunder, M. B. Fluvial and hydrothermal input of manganese into the Arctic Ocean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 2393–2408 (2011).
Klunder, M. B., Laan, P., Middag, R., De Baar, H. J. W. & Bakker, K. Dissolved iron in the Arctic Ocean: important role of hydrothermal sources, shelf input and scavenging removal. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 117, C04014 (2012).
Kipp, L. E. et al. Radium isotopes as tracers of hydrothermal inputs and neutrally buoyant plume dynamics in the deep ocean. Mar. Chem. 201, 51–65 (2017).
Lupton, J. Hydrothermal helium plumes in the Pacific Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 15853–15868 (1998).
Hollenbach, D. F. & Herndon, J. M. Deep-Earth reactor: nuclear fission, helium, and the geomagnetic field. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 11085–11090 (2001).
Neuholz, R. et al. Near-field hydrothermal plume dynamics at Brothers Volcano (Kermadec Arc): a short-lived radium isotope study. Chem. Geol. 533, 119379 (2020).
Von Damm, K. L., Edmond, J. M., Grant, B. & Measures, C. I. Chemistry of submarine hydrothermal solutions at 21° N, East Pacific Rise. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 49, 2197–2220 (1985).
Haymon, R. M. & Kastner, M. Caminite: a new magnesium-hydroxide-sulfate-hydrate mineral found in a submarine hydrothermal deposit, East Pacific Rise, 21° N. Am. Mineral. 71, 819–825 (1986).
Edmonds, H. N. & German, C. R. Particle geochemistry in the Rainbow hydrothermal plume, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 68, 759–772 (2004).
Klevenz, V. et al. Geochemistry of vent fluid particles formed during initial hydrothermal fluid-seawater mixing along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 12, Q0AE05 (2012).
Seyfried, W. E., Pester, N. J., Ding, K. & Rough, M. Vent fluid chemistry of the Rainbow hydrothermal system (36° N, MAR): phase equilibria and in situ pH controls on subseafloor alteration processes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 1574–1593 (2011).
Waeles, M. et al. On the early fate of hydrothermal iron at deep-sea vents: a reassessment after in situ filtration. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 4233–4240 (2017).
Rudnicki, M. D. & Elderfield, H. Helium, radon and manganese at the TAG and Snakepit hydrothermal vent fields, 26° and 23° N, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 113, 307–321 (1992).
Chin, C. S. et al. In situ observations of dissolved iron and manganese in hydrothermal vent plumes, Juan de Fuca Ridge. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 99, 4969–4984 (1994).
Mandernack, K. W. & Tebo, B. M. Manganese scavenging and oxidation at hydrothermal vents and in vent plumes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 57, 3907–3923 (1993).
Wang, H., Yang, Q., Ji, F., Lilley, M. D. & Zhou, H. The geochemical characteristics and Fe (II) oxidation kinetics of hydrothermal plumes at the Southwest Indian Ridge. Mar. Chem. 134–135, 29–35 (2012).
Lam, P. J. et al. Methods for analyzing the concentration and speciation of major and trace elements in marine particles. Prog. Oceanogr. 133, 32–42 (2015).
Hatta, M. et al. An overview of dissolved Fe and Mn distributions during the 2010–2011 U.S. GEOTRACES North Atlantic cruises: GEOTRACES GA03. Deep Sea Res. Pt II 116, 117–129 (2015).
Jenkins, W. J. et al. The deep distributions of helium isotopes, radiocarbon, and noble gases along the U.S. GEOTRACES East Pacific Zonal Transect (GP16). Mar. Chem. 201, 167–182 (2017).
Metz, S. & Trefry, J. H. Chemical and mineralogical influences on concentrations of trace metals in hydrothermal fluids. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 2267–2279 (2000).
Field, M. P. & Sherrell, R. M. Dissolved and particulate Fe in a hydrothermal plume at 9°45′N, East Pacific Rise. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 619–628 (2000).
Statham, P. J., German, C. R. & Connelly, D. P. Iron (II) distribution and oxidation kinetics in hydrothermal plumes at the Kairei and Edmond vent sites, Indian Ocean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 236, 588–896 (2005).
Tagliabue, A. et al. The integral role of iron in ocean biogeochemistry. Nature 543, 51–59 (2017).
Campbell, A. C., Gieskes, J. M., Lupton, J. E. & Lonsdale, P. F. Manganese geohemistry in the Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52, 345–357 (1988).
Dick, G. J. & Tebo, B. M. Microbial diversity and biogeochemistry of the Guaymas deep-sea hydrothermal plume. Environ. Microbiol. 12, 1334–1347 (2010).
Dick, G. J. et al. The microbiology of deep-sea hydrothermal vent plumes: ecological and biogeographic linkages to seafloor and water column habitats. Front. Microbiol. 4, 124 (2013).
Cowen, J. P., Massoth, G. J. & Feely, R. A. Scavenging rates of dissolved manganese in a hydrothermal vent plume. Deep Sea Res. Pt A 37, 1619–1637 (1990).
Kleint, C., Pichler, T. & Koschinsky, A. Geochemical characteristics, speciation and size-fractionation of iron (Fe) in two marine shallow-water hydrothermal systems, Dominica, Lesser Antilles. Chem. Geol. 454, 44–53 (2017).
Martin, J. H. & Knauer, G. A. Manganese cycling in northeast Pacific waters. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 51, 266–274 (1980).
Boyd, P. W., Ellwood, M. J., Tagliabue, A. & Twining, B. S. Biotic and abiotic retention, recycling and remineralization of metals in the ocean. Nat. Geosci. 10, 167–173 (2017).
Bishop, J. K. B. & Fleisher, M. Q. Particulate manganese dynamics in Gulf Stream warm-core rings and surrounding waters of the N. W. Atlantic. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51, 2807–2825 (1987).
van Hulten, M. et al. Manganese in the west Atlantic Ocean in the context of the first global circulation model of manganese. Biogeosciences 14, 1123–1152 (2017).
Cron, B. R. et al. Dynamic biogeochemistry of the particulate sulfur pool in a buoyant dep-sea hydrothermal plume. ACS Earth Space Chem. 4, 168–182 (2020).
Bergquist, B. A., Wu, J. & Boyle, E. A. Variability in oceanic dissolved iron is dominated by the colloidal fraction. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 71, 2960–2974 (2007).
Rudnicki, M. D. & Elderfield, H. A chemical model of the bouyant and neutrally bouyant plume above the TAG vent field, 26 degrees N, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 57, 2939–2957 (1993).
Massoth, G. J. et al. Manganese and iron in hydrothermal plumes resulting from the 1996 Gorda Ridge event. Deep Sea Res. Pt II 45, 2683–2712 (1998).
Coale, K. H., Chin, C. S., Massoth, G. J., Johnson, K. S. & Baker, E. T. In situ chemical mapping of dissolved iron and manganese in hydrothermal plumes. Nature 352, 325–328 (1991).
Millero, F. J., Sotolongo, S. & Izaguirre, M. The oxidation kinetics Fe(ii) in seawater. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51, 793–801 (1987).
Bennett, S. A. et al. Iron isotope fractionation in a buoyant hydrothermal plume, 5° S Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 73, 5619–5634 (2009).
Rouxel, O., Toner, B. M., Manganini, S. J. & German, C. R. Geochemistry and iron isotope systematics of hydrothermal plume fall-out at East Pacific Rise 9° 50’ N. Chem. Geol. 441, 212–234 (2016).
Little, S. H., Vance, D., McManus, J., Severmann, S. & Lyons, T. W. Copper isotope signatures in modern marine sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 212, 253–273 (2017).
Roshan, S., Wu, J. & Jenkins, W. J. Long-range transport of hydrothermal dissolved Zn in the tropical South Pacific. Mar. Chem. 183, 25–32 (2016).
Coogan, L. A. & Dosso, S. An internally consistent, probabilistic, determination of ridge-axis hydrothermal fluxes from basalt-hosted systems. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 323–324, 92–101 (2012).
Elderfield, H. & Schultz, A. Mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal fluxes and the chemical composition of the ocean. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 24, 191–224 (1996).
Feely, R. A. et al. The relationship between P/Fe and V/Fe ratios in hydrothermal precipitates and dissolved phosphate in seawater. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 2253–2256 (1988).
Feely, R. A. et al. Composition and sedimentation of hydrothermal plume particles from north Cleft segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 4985–5006 (1994).
Sarradin, P. M. et al. Speciation of dissolved copper within an active hydrothermal edifice on the Lucky Strike vent field (MAR, 37° N). Sci. Total Environ. 407, 869–878 (2009).
Acknowledgements
A.G. thanks P. Lam and her laboratory group for valuable discussions regarding an early version of the concepts presented in this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
A.G. and A.J.F. conceived of and wrote the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Peer review information Primary Handling Editor: Rebecca Neely.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gartman, A., Findlay, A.J. Impacts of hydrothermal plume processes on oceanic metal cycles and transport. Nat. Geosci. 13, 396–402 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0579-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0579-0
This article is cited by
-
Thermochemical oxidation of methane by manganese oxides in hydrothermal sediments
Communications Earth & Environment (2023)
-
Hydrogeochemical similarities and groundwater-surface water interactions for the karst hydrological system of northwest Rwanda
Arabian Journal of Geosciences (2023)
-
Gas migration signatures over the volcanic cratered seamount, off the Nicobar Islands in the Andaman Sea
Geo-Marine Letters (2023)
-
Niche differentiation of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SUP05) in submarine hydrothermal plumes
The ISME Journal (2022)
-
Hydrothermal plumes as hotspots for deep-ocean heterotrophic microbial biomass production
Nature Communications (2021)