Abstract
Metastasis is the primary cause of cancer-related deaths, but the natural history, clonal evolution and impact of treatment are poorly understood. We analyzed whole-exome sequencing (WES) data from 457 paired primary tumor and metastatic samples from 136 patients with breast, colorectal and lung cancer, including untreated (n = 99) and treated (n = 100) metastases. Treated metastases often harbored private ‘driver’ mutations, whereas untreated metastases did not, suggesting that treatment promotes clonal evolution. Polyclonal seeding was common in untreated lymph node metastases (n = 17 out of 29, 59%) and distant metastases (n = 20 out of 70, 29%), but less frequent in treated distant metastases (n = 9 out of 94, 10%). The low number of metastasis-private clonal mutations is consistent with early metastatic seeding, which we estimated occurred 2–4 years before diagnosis across these cancers. Furthermore, these data suggest that the natural course of metastasis is selectively relaxed relative to early tumorigenesis and that metastasis-private mutations are not drivers of cancer spread but instead associated with drug resistance.
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Data availability
The exome sequencing data for colorectal cancer patients sequenced in-house have been deposited at the European Genotype Phenotype Archive under accession number EGAS00001003573. The accession numbers for the public datasets are listed in Supplementary Table 1.
Code availability
Code used for genomic data analysis are available from https://github.com/cancersysbio/pan-metastasis
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Acknowledgements
We thank H. Xu, K. McNamara, E. Kotler, J. Caswell-Jin and other members of Curtis laboratory for valuable discussions. We thank J. Wang and Q. Mu for providing the scripts for the ternary plot. C.C. is supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) through the NIH Director’s Pioneer Award (DP1-CA238296), the American Association for Cancer Research–Triple Negative Breast Cancer Foundation–Carol’s Crusade for Cure Foundation Career Development Award for Metastatic Triple Negative Breast Cancer Research, grant no. 16-20-43-CURT) and the Emerson Collective. Z.H. is supported by an Innovative Genomics Initiative Postdoctoral Fellowship.
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Z.H. and C.C. conceived and designed the study. Z.H. performed all computational analyses. Z.L. reviewed the published studies, extracted and analyzed the clinical data. Z.M. processed the in-house clinical samples and generated the genomic data. Z.H. and C.C. wrote the manuscript, which was reviewed by all authors.
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C.C. is a scientific advisor to GRAIL and reports stock options, as well as consulting for GRAIL and Genentech. Z.H., Z.L. and Z.M. have no conflicts of interest to report.
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Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 Sankey diagram of patient cohorts with paired primary tumors and metastases.
In total, 136 primary tumors and 199 matched metastases from colorectal, lung and breast cancers were included. Treatment status is indicated.
Extended Data Fig. 2 Concordance of mutation burden in paired primary tumors (P) and metastasis (M).
Concordance amongst a, Clonal sSNVs; b, Subclonal SSNVs and c, sCNAs are indicated. Spearman’s correlation (ρ) is reported. Line indicates the linear regression and gray shading indicates the 95% confidence interval (CI) of the regression. The mean mutation burden across samples is reported for samples with multi-region sequencing data.
Extended Data Fig. 3 The ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous mutations, dN/dS.
The dN/dS ratios of missense mutations (left panel) or nonsense mutations (right panel) relative to synonymous mutations are shown (on log2 scale). The dN/dS ratios for putative driver genes and passengers were computed separately. The driver gene list was obtained by merging TCGA pan-cancer drivers and COSMIC Cancer Gene Census (Methods). Circles and vertical lines correspond to the mean and 95% CI of the dN/dS ratio, respectively.
Extended Data Fig. 4 The frequency of somatic copy number alterations (sCNAs) for primary tumors and metastases across three cancer types.
The frequency of amplifications or deletions across 1 Mb genomic bins is shown for primary tumors and metastases.
Extended Data Fig. 5 The frequency of somatic copy number alterations (sCNAs) in putative driver genes in paired primary tumors (P) and metastases (M).
Left panel, amplifications (AMP) where oncogenes with an increased frequency (\(\ge\)15%) in the metastasis (M) versus primary (P) are labeled. Right panel, deletions (DEL) where tumor suppressor genes with increased frequency (\(\ge\)15%) in the metastasis (M) versus primary (P) are labeled.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Schematic illustration of a 3-D spatial-agent based model of tumor growth and metastasis.
Tumor growth is simulated via the expansion of deme subpopulations (mimicking the glandular structures often found in epithelial tumors and metastases) within a defined 3-D cubic lattice according to explicit rules dictated by spatial constraints, where cells within each deme are well-mixed and grow via a stochastic branching (birth-death) process (Methods). To model monoclonal seeding, a single cell at the tumor periphery was randomly sampled as the metastasis founder cell. To model polyclonal seeding, a cluster of cells (n = 10) was randomly sampled from the whole tumor in order to maximize the clonal diversity within the metastasis founder cells. Metastatic growth follows the same spatial-constraints as the primary and starts from the metastasis founder cell or cell cluster. The final sizes of both the primary tumor and metastasis is ~109 cells (~2×105 demes). Clonal selection is modeled by assuming a constant beneficial mutation rate that alters the cell birth/death probability according to the selection coefficient (denoted s). By simulating the acquisition of random mutations (neutral or beneficial), tracing the mutational genealogy of each cell as the tumor expands and subsequently spatially sampling (~106 cells in each sample) and sequencing the ‘final’ virtual tumor as is done experimentally after resection or biopsy, we obtain the variant allele frequencies (VAF) and cancer cell fraction (CCF) in both primary tumor and metastasis.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Lm, Lp and Ws values in tumors simulated under monoclonal versus polyclonal seeding.
The number of sSNVs in each of the three categories (M-private clonal or Lm, P-private clonal or Lp, P/M shared subclonal or Ws) in the simulated data generated by modeling monoclonal seeding or polyclonal seeding within an agent-based model (Methods) where one sample (~106 cells) was biopsied from each primary tumor and metastasis. We employed a mutation rate u = 0.6 per cell division in exonic regions (corresponding to 10-8 per site per cell division in the 60 Mb diploid coding regions). In order to account for varying scenarios of tumor growth dynamics, selection and timing of metastatic dissemination, the birth probability b of founding cells, selection coefficient s and primary tumor size at dissemination Nd was randomly sampled from a uniform distribution, b~U(0.55, 0.65), log10(s)~U(-3,-1) and log10(Nd)~U(4,8), respectively. A total of n = 500 virtual P/M pairs were simulated under monoclonal seeding and polyclonal seeding by randomly sampling these three parameters. Bar, median; box, 25th to 75th percentile (interquartile range, IQR); vertical line, data within 1.5 times the IQR.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Jaccard similarity index (JSI) values in lymph node and distant metastases and the percentage of polyclonal seeding across metastatic sites.
a, Lymph node metastases (LNM; n = 35) showed significantly higher JSI than distant metastases (n = 164). Among distant metastases, untreated metastasis showed higher JSI than treated metastasis although this was not statistically significant. However, using a cutoff of JSI = 0.3 to classify polyclonal (JSI\(\ge\)0.3) versus monoclonal seeding (JSI < 0.3), untreated distant metastases showed a significantly higher percentage of polyclonal seeding than treated distant metastases (Fig. 2e). P-value, Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test (two-sided). Bar, median; box, 25th to 75th percentile (interquartile range, IQR); vertical line, data within 1.5 times the IQR. b, The percentage of polyclonal seeding among all LNM (lymph node metastasis), LiM (liver metastasis), BM (brain metastasis) and LuM (lung metastasis) (left panel) and stratified by treatment (right panel). P-value, Fisher’s exact test (two sided).
Extended Data Fig. 9 A mathematical method to quantify the chronology of metastatic seeding, ts.
a, Schematic of the parameters used to quantify metastatic timing ts (number of years prior to primary tumor diagnosis). We assume metastatic spread occurs at tm following the emergence of malignant founder of primary carcinoma (denoted t = 0). Let T be the time from emergence of malignant founder to diagnosis of the primary tumor, thus ts = T-tm. Let Lp and Lm be the number of private clonal sSNVs in a bulk sample from primary tumor and metastasis, respectively. Lp represents the number of sSNVs that occurred from emergence of the primary tumor founder to the most recent common ancestor (PMRCA) of cell lineages in a bulk sample. This time span is denoted as tp. Similarly, Lm denotes the number of SSNVs occurred from the emergence of primary tumor founder to the MRCA in a bulk sample from the metastasis (denoted MMRCA). Lm includes the number of M-private clonal mutations that occur: (i) within the primary tumor (Lm1) and (ii) after cells have disseminated from the primary tumor (Lm2), thus Lm = Lm1 + Lm2. b, Estimation of α by simulating an agent-based model of tumor evolution (Methods). The mean α and standard deviation from 1000 simulated tumors are shown.
Extended Data Fig. 10 Later metastatic seeding is associated with higher genomic divergence in matched primary tumors.
a, The number of primary (P)-private clonal sSNVs and metastasis (M)-private clonal sSNVs in synchronous (distant and monoclonal, n = 41) and metachronous (distant and monoclonal, n = 80) metastases, respectively. b, The number of P-to-M altered sCNAs in synchronous and metachronous metastases, respectively; P-values, two-sided Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test. Bar, median; box, 25th to 75th percentile (interquartile range, IQR); vertical line, data within 1.5 times the IQR.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
Supplementary Figs. 1–13, Note, and Tables 8 and 9
Supplementary Tables
Supplementary Table 1. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) datasets in paired primary tumors and metastases in three cancer types. Supplementary Table 2. Patient information of metastatic cancers in three cancer types (n = 136). Supplementary Table 3. Sample information of metastatic cancers in three cancer types (n = 457). Supplementary Table 4. Mutational counts in 199 primary tumor/metastasis pairs in three cancer types. Supplementary Table 5. Candidate driver genes from TCGA and COSMIC in colorectal, lung and breast cancer, respectively. Supplementary Table 6. Functional driver sSNVs/indels in the three cancer types. Supplementary Table 7. Enriched GO terms for M-private clonal (n = 152) or subclonal (135) functional sSNVs/indels.
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Hu, Z., Li, Z., Ma, Z. et al. Multi-cancer analysis of clonality and the timing of systemic spread in paired primary tumors and metastases. Nat Genet 52, 701–708 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-020-0628-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-020-0628-z
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